A memorial service will be held this Saturday in Portland, Jamaica for the late television presenter, top radio personality, record producer and artist.

1976-1979

Jamaica Broadcasting Corporation in Kingston, Jamaica - Presenter: "Dread at the Controls Show" Technical Operator: Audio programs both live and recorded.

Awarded: Top Radio Personality in Jamaican Radio based on the unusual impact made on radio listeners and the popularity of recordings made.

Recorded/produced single: "Barber Saloon." Charted at number one on the local radio charts recorded several Top 10-reggae singles.

Performed live at Reggae Sunsplash in Jamaica along with other featured artists including Bob Marley, Jimmy Cliff, Inner Circle, and Third World.

Produced first album "Dread at the Controls" (Trojan Records-London) and "African Anthem" (A Special Edition from Jamaica's radio program for Cruise Records-UK).

Worked at Treasure Isle Recording Studio-Jamaica as Audio Engineer.

Traveled to London on a promotional trip.

1980-1981

Produced several Jamaican artists. Recorded album “World War 111” for the Dread at the Controls label. The " Breakdown the Walls” single from this album was used in the soundtrack for the movie "Walcott," a British Television Movie Series-aired on Central TV, London. ITV Network.

Attended National Broadcasting School in London, England. Graduated with qualifications in Presentation and Production.

Produced The Clash-Epic Records. First production "Bank Robber/Rockers Galore UK Tour" charted number 12 on the British charts. Highest chart entry in the history of the group. Appeared in the "Bankrobber" video, a CBS Records Production. Co-produced The Clash, several tracks on "Sandinista" album. Co-wroteand performed on 5 tracks.

"Sandinista" Best Rock Record in 1981.

1982-1983

Employed by Central TV-London as Presenter/Researcher/Narrator for a six-part TV documentary series-"Deep Roots Music" that was aired nationally and across Europe. Created and produced "Jungle Signal" used as the Soundtrack and Signature Tune for "Deep Roots Music" /CH4, UK Produced Japanese Rock band Anarchy.

Visited and Performed in Japan with The Mods.

Toured Europe and Scandinavia as support artist for UB40 and produced 10 dub tracks for them.

Made several appearances and performances on BBC and Sky TV Music Box, London and Bristol / UK.

Live appearances with UB40, Bob Dylan, and Carlos Santana at Rock Music Festival at Wembley Stadium in London and Slane Castle in Dublin, Ireland. Live appearances on BBC-2 television show Ebony.

Performed "Pave the Way" " Reggae Hit Shot" (Reggae Christmas) and "Sunday School."

Created TV formats for Rockers Roadshow -a 10 part British TV series for Channel 4 television, commissioned by Central TV, London. Worked at Central TV/Channel 4 as Presenter/Music Director for Rockers Road Show for national broadcast across UK. This was a 10 part youth music series.

Employed at VPRO Radio in the Netherlands as Host/Producer of reggae Series - "Rockers in the Morning" a weekly program.

1984

Studied Studio/Recording Techniques at Polytechnic of North London. Presented Reggae show for Radio West in Bristol,UK.

Presented/produced Reggae Special Reports for BBC Radio 1 For National broadcast across the UK.

Produced several reggae albums. Completed various Station ID's/jingles for various radio networks worldwide.

Hosted live events including "Miss Black UK pageant" in Birmingham.

1985-1988

Produced/presented Reggae Radio special for Australian Broadcasting Corporation 105.7 FMJJJ Radio Sydney, Australia.

Freelanced as Mix Engineer, Music Producer, and Reggae Consultant.

Live appearances in California. Commercial voice overs for Los Angeles Reggae Festival.

Live appearances on CBS-TV News at 10-Channel 13 TV-Tucson, Arizona.

1989-1991

Headlined the "Tropical Heat Wave Festival" in Tampa, Florida – WMNF Radio. Toured USA with Roots Radics Band and Israel Vibrations Group supporting albums: "Happy Family," "Pave the Way," "World War 111," and "S.W.A.L.K."

Recorded single "The Source of Divorce" for Warner Brothers Records, Los Angeles. Filmed video at Gene Kelly's house –a Warner Brothers Production.

Contracted to UK radio network Spectrum International Radio as Head Presentation/ Production and Multicultural Afro Caribbean Programming.

Live appearances across Europe with Bunny Wailer, Culture Abyssinians, and Judy Mowatt.

Participated in a reggae tour across USA and Europe with Freddie McGregor along with Lloyd Parks and "We The People Band." Performed in a European tour with Ziggy Marley, Kid Creole, I-Threes, the Wailers and Freddie McGregor.

Headliner-USA tour with Roots Radics Band (August -September 1991) to support albums "Profile" (Ras Records) and "Mikey Dread's Best Sellers" (Rykodisc). Contracted as guest host "Caribbean Love Boat" - Show for FM Yokohama, Japan.

1992

Nominated for NAIRD Award (National Association of Independent Record Distributors) for album " Mikley Dread Best Sellers"(Rykodisc)-a Billboard Magazine Music Award.

Guest host for a World beat, USA TV show "Tropical Beat" filmed live in New York. Released album "Obsession" (Rykodisc).

Co-produced / co-wrote and performed on Izzy Stradlin's (formerly of Guns and Roses) single "Can't Hear 'Em"(Geffen Records). Production arrangements on Pressure Drop from Izzy Stradlin and the Ju Ju Hounds
(debut album-Geffen Records).

Headlined a charity concert for Mayor Kenneth E. Reeves, Cambridge, Massachusetts - to raise money for The Duboise Academy and youths of the community.

"Breakdown the Walls" album soundtrack was used in the USA movie, The Rift. Headlined a USA tour with the Roots Radics Band to support the "Obsession" album (Rykodisc).

1993-1999

Program Director, Caribbean Satellite Network. On air personality of reggae music feature specials. Producer for the following:
1. Artist Profile
2. New Video Showcase
3. VideoDub Plate
4. Christmas Around the Caribbean
5. Christmas withthe Children
6. Bob Marley, Hall of Fame Induction
7. CelebrityGuest DJ's
8. Trinidad Carnival

Attended the Art Institute of Ft. Lauderdale as a full time student majoring in Music/ Video Production. Graduated in 1996 with honors.

In 1994 received international reggae music awards "Martins International Cultural Award of Honor" in Chicago.

Entertainment Consultant for Caribbean Music Festival in Nassau, Bahamas. Did voice- over for radio and TV spots.

Video Juke Box promotion for Terror Fabulous (East West Records) TV commercial voice - over talent.

Voice - over talent for TV Spot for Patra's new album on Columbia Records.

Radio DJ on WAVS 1170 AM in Davie, Florida and WAXY 790 AM in Miami, Florida.

Video Juke Box TV commercial voice over for BobMarley Promotion. Performed at Essential Music Festival in Brighton, UK. TV News Photographer for Metro Video Filming and editing news stories for NBC 6 in Miami, FL.

Performed at Cameo Theater in Miami Beach, Florida with Culture. TV Broadcast Operator at SKY/DTH Latin America-A Satellite TV Broadcasting Station-utilizing LOUTH automation.

Freelance video editor, editing TV commercials. Live performances at the European Summer Festivals in Germany, Brussels, and Austria.

Performed at the 18th Annual Bob Marley Day at Long Beach Arena San Diego Sports Arena using School Band.

Performed live in San Francisco at Justice League to a sold out crowd.
Awarded 1999 Communicator Award for Video Editing. For a 60-sec. TV spot for "Boca Raton News."

2000

Appearing live in concert across the USA and Hawaii.

Graduated with honors from Lynn University, Boca Raton / Florida with a "Magna Cum Laude" Bachelor of Arts Degree in International Communications. Released "World Tour" - CD. His first album release in 5 years.

Produced local Reggae and Hip-Hop artists.

2001

Toured with the "Fully Fullwood" Band (consisting of Peter Tosh's musicians, like George Fullwood on bass and Tony Chin on guitar) Performed at Bakersfield Reggae Festival and Monterey Reggae Fest in California.

Live appearances in San Francisco (Maritime Hall),Santa Cruz (Palookaville), Berkley, Ashkenaz (California), Maui,Honolulu, and Kauai (Hawaii), Bari and Rome (Italy), Brighton (UK).

Performed at Clearwater Spring Break in Florida with Ja- Rule, 112 and Ziggy Marley (Florida).

Performed at the Hopi- Land Indian Reservation (Arizona), Apache Gold Indian Reservation (Arizona), San Luis Obispo, Santa Barbara, Grover Beach, San Diego, Mateel Community Center, Mckinleyville in California.

2002-2003

Released album "Rasta in Control" Playedtwice for UCLA, California. Specially invited to play in Switzerland at the Montreux Jazz Festival to co-headline the festival at the Miles Davis Hall.

Co-headline performance at the Summer Jam Festival in Koln, Germany. Played live at the Annual Reggae River Splash 2003 in Slovenia, as well as Kozel Klikkfest 2003 in Slovakia, East Europe.

Headlined the "One Love Bob Marley Festival" in Little Rock in Arkansas, "New England Reggae Fest" in Rhode Island, "Jamaica my Weekend" in Fresno, California, Doheny Day's at Dana Point, California and "Reggae Destiny Festival" in Wilmington, North Carolina.

Featured in the BBC / Bravo TV Documentary "History of Reggae Music."
Recorded a Track for "Red Bull" and played an event in Milan, Italy, which was sponsored by Red Bull Home Groove.

2004

Featured artist on "Lips Like Sugar" with Seal for the soundtrack of the Adam Sandler/Drew Barrymore -Sony Pictures movie "50 First Dates" Toured with the "Dread at the Controls" Band in the USA and Europe extensively. Headline artist at Cal State Monterey Bay University and Cal State Stanislaus, Turlock, California.

Headline artist on Island Festival in Kalamazoo, Kalamazoo, Michigan. Played Glastonbury Festival, UK.

Featured on BBC TV Highlights of "The Best Of Glastonbury 2004." Headline artist at St. Pauls Carnival, Bristol, Reggae Festival in Wales, Lambeth County Show at the Brockwell Park, Arches Theatre - Glasgow, Scotland Headline artist at the Aix en Province in France and the Ja' Sound Festival in Lézan, France.

Appeared live on ABC TV - Morning Show in Portland, Oregon performing "Break Down The Walls" live and interviewed by the hosts of the show.

There was every indication at a very early stage that George Stiebel was destined to lead an intriguing life. Born to a Jamaican housekeeper, and a German Jew in the 1820s, George was subject to a range of criticisms and harsh treatment from his peers as a result of his mixed parentage. School was therefore not as fulfilling an experience as it should have been, and he quit the classroom at age fourteen to become a carpenter’s apprentice. George quickly developed a flair for carpentry, and by age 19 he played an integral role in the reconstruction of the famous Ferry Inn, between Kingston and Spanish Town.

In the 1840's, George's father gave him start up capital to purchase a ship, which he began using to transport cargo between North and South America. Shortly after he purchased two additional ships to develop his new business venture in the Caribbean, including Cuba where a revolution was in high gear. He realized that the island would be ideal to undertake a lucrative gun-trading ring. While he did manage to make respectable profits from trading guns, he also fell in trouble with the law for his activities.

In 1851, George's life took a turn for the better when he married long time sweetheart Magdalene Baker, daughter of a Moravian Missionary. Soon after their son, Sigismund, named after George's father, was born. Two years later a girl, Theresa, joined the Stiebel family. Five years after their marriage, his ships were caught in a terrible storm, which destroyed the vessels. Unfortunately Stiebel was aboard one of the ships which sank off the coast of Venezuela. He managed to survive the wreckage and luckily he had the foresight to secure all his money which was stored in a leather belt. Stiebel's tenacity soon began to show results, because shortly after arriving in Venezuela he became a peddler, and with his savings he purchased a mule to assist in transporting his goods. His misfortune at sea quickly dulled when he began trading gold in Venezuela. He invested in a gold mine with his friends, and fifteen years later in 1873 the business was showing huge profits. George Stiebel had undoubtedly made an impressive stake in the gold mining business and the accolade awarded to him as Jamaica's first millionaire of African descend seemed very deserving and appropriate. His achievements were shattered however with the death of his son, and he returned home to Jamaica.

Stiebel's love for his country and sense of civic duty kicked in almost immediately after his return to Jamaica. It is reported that he purchased 99 properties (it was illegal to own 100 properties during the period) including two sugar estates, a wharf at Church Street, Great Salt Pond and a Cattle Pen named Minard, in St. Ann.

He built a lavish home at Minard, which became the family’s favorite vacation getaway. In 1881 he commissioned the services of contractor Charles P. Lazarus to build the magnificent Devon House. The house boasted a library, gaming room, ballroom, sitting rooms, a sewing room, dining room, and bedrooms. The kitchen (now occupied by the Brick Oven) was located towards the back away from the House.

In addition to investing in property in Jamaica, Stiebel was a philanthropist, assisting the poor and disadvantaged, as well as exhibiting continuous interest in the socio-economic state of the country. Several civic authorities and local groups invited Stiebel to sit on their Boards including the Jamaica Permanent Benefit Society, the Jamaica Co-operative Fruit Insurance Company, the Board of Education and the Kingston and St. Andrew Union Poorhouse. Stiebel's most noted civic duty came when he was named a Justice of the Peace (JP) and later Custos of St. Andrew. It was during his tenure as Custos that the Great Exhibition of 1891 was staged in Kingston. The Exhibition, which sought to introduce tourism to the island, required extensive financing which the government was unable to undertake. Stiebel was among a small group of entrepreneurs who loaned the Government funds to stage the exhibition. In recognition of his services in the interest of the island, Her Majesty the Queen bestowed on Stiebel the honour of Companion of the Most Distinguished Order (C.M.G.).

Over the next ten years George Stiebel lived happily at Devon House with his wife Magdalene, and surrounded by his grandchildren. The Stiebels also did an impressive job of holding lavish parties for friends and family. It was not surprising then that they employed a large staff which reportedly included four gardeners, two house maids, a butler, cook, laundress, grooms and coachman. Servants' Quarters were located in the space now used as the property's commercial complex.

Sadness again befell Devon House when Stiebel's wife Magdalene died in October 1892. Magdalene was buried at the St. Andrew Parish Cemetery under a grey granite tombstone with a white marble cross-wreathed in white marble flowers. It is said that at the time Stiebel imported enough grey granite from Scotland to bury his entire family. Tragedy
continued to mark the Stiebel family. In 1895 his grandson Douglas died of typhoid, and only a week later his son in law Richard Hill Jackson (who served as Mayor of Kingston) passed away.

George Stiebel died in 1896 at age 75. Stiebel's generous spirit lived on even after his death, as he ensured that his family was well taken care of. His daughter for example was granted an annual annuity of three thousand pounds, and she was assured a permanent place at Devon House while she was alive. A total of ten thousand pounds was to be allotted to each of his grandchildren once they turned 21. The Stiebel- Jacksons occupied Devon House until 1922 following the death of Theresa Stiebel- Jackson.

For all those who have the opportunity of going to school and are procrastinating then read the story of Booker T Washington. Imagine having to walk 200 miles to get an education! His life should inspire us to forget about the minor irritations and really get focused on making more of our lives!

(1856-1915) - Lecturer, Civil Rights/Human Rights Activist, Educational Administrator, Professor, Organization Executive/Founder, Author/Poet.

Booker T. Washington was born a slave in Hale's Ford, Virginia, reportedly on April 5, 1856. After emancipation, his family was so poverty stricken that he worked in salt furnaces and coal mines beginning at age nine. Always an intelligent and curious child, he yearned for an education and was frustrated when he could not receive good schooling locally. When he was 16 his parents allowed him to quit work to go to school. They had no money to help him, so he walked 200 miles to attend the Hampton Institute in Virginia and paid his tuition and board there by working as the janitor.

Dedicating himself to the idea that education would raise his people to equality in this country, Washington became a teacher. He first taught in his home town, then at the Hampton Institute, and then in 1881, he founded the Tuskegee Normal and Industrial Institute in Tuskegee, Alabama. As head of the Institute, he traveled the country unceasingly to raise funds from blacks and whites both; soon he became a well-known speaker.

In 1895, Washington was asked to speak at the opening of the Cotton States Exposition, an unprecedented honor for an African American. His Atlanta Compromise speech explained his major thesis, that blacks could secure their constitutional rights through their own economic and moral advancement rather than through legal and political changes. Although his conciliatory stand angered some blacks who feared it would encourage the foes of equal rights, whites approved of his views. Thus his major achievement was to win over diverse elements among southern whites, without whose support the programs he envisioned and brought into being would have been impossible.

In addition to Tuskegee Institute, which still educates many today, Washington instituted a variety of programs for rural extension work, and helped to establish the National Negro Business League. Shortly after the election of President William McKinley in 1896, a movement was set in motion that Washington be named to a cabinet post, but he withdrew his name from consideration, preferring to work outside the political arena. He died on November 14, 1915.

Most people hearing the name Garrett Morgan can associate it with he being the man who invented the traffic light – but his work goes far beyond that. He also designed the first gas mask for use by firefighters, too.

Garrett Augustus Morgan was born on March 4, 1877 in Paris, Kentucky. He was the seventh of eleven children, and he spent his childhood working on their farm and attending elementary school.

At the age of 14 Garrett Morgan moved to Cincinnati, Ohio and hired a tutor so he could continue his English grammar studies. Garrett moved again in 1895, this time to Cleveland, Ohio and went to work for a clothing manufacturer as a repairman for the sewing machines. He did such a good job that news of his proficiency and experimentation spread quickly around town, and many job offers came pouring in.

In 1909, he had already opened his own tailoring shop when he came upon an interesting situation that led to the first of his famous inventions. Garrett noticed that the needles moved so fast through the wool fabrics, that the friction often caused them to scorch the fabric. He decided to try to come up with a liquid to polish the needles and reduce the friction. One day, when his wife called him for dinner, he wiped the liquid from his hands onto a pony-fur cloth to clean them. When he returned after dinner, he noticed that the fibers were standing up straight now. He thought that the liquid must have straightened them. He decided to test this theory by applying the liquid to the fur of his neighbor's dog, which was an Airedale.

The liquid was so successful at straightening the dog's hair that the owner didn't even recognize his own dog, and tried to chase it away! The next step was for Garrett Morgan to try the liquid on his own hair, which he did with great success. He had just invented the first human hair straightener, and he began to market it as the G.A. Morgan Hair Refining Cream. These kinds of hair products are still popular today.

The next invention of Garrett Morgan took place in 1912. He called it the Safety Hood and patented it as a breathing device, but it was commonly known as the gas mask. This Safety Hood was specifically meant to assist Firefighters so that they could breathe longer in thick, suffocating gases and smoke, and allow them to do their jobs more efficiently and safely. Garrett Morgan set up the National Safety Device Company to manufacture and sell the Safety Hood, and they did several exhibitions all over the country and won some prizes. That helped business, but a real-life application is what really put it on the map.

On July 24, 1916 Garrett Morgan was relaxing at home when someone called on him and asked him to help. An explosion in a tunnel that was being dug under Lake Erie had trapped 32 workers underground with dust, smoke and poisonous gases. Nobody wanted to go in after them, because there was no way to breathe long enough to rescue them and get back out. In one of the more exciting stories in the biography of Garrett Morgan, Garrett and his brother Frank arrived with their Safety hoods, put them on, and entered the tunnel. Eventually, they returned with a survivor on each of their backs. Applause erupted from the bystanders, and two other men put on Safety Hoods and joined Garrett and Frank as they went back in again. While they were not able to save all of the trapped workers, they did save many who certainly would have died without Garrett Morgan and his Safety Hood.

Orders began pouring in from all over the country from Police and Fire departments who recognized the benefit of this amazing invention. Several orders were later canceled when some customers realized that Garrett Morgan was an African American inventor, but there were many others including the U.S. Army, who bought and utilized the Safety Hood.

In the midst of the biography of Garrett Morgan, Henry Ford invented the Automobile. In 1903 the Ford Motor Company was founded, and soon afterward, many Americans were speeding down the roadways along with the horse drawn carriages, bicycles and pedestrians. It didn't take long to realize that the increased traffic, along with the wide variety in traveling speeds was a problem. The most obvious problem was at the intersections. Many times a police officer would work the busiest intersections to direct and control traffic flow for maximum safety and efficiency, but many intersections were unmanned. It was after Morgan witnessed a particularly bad accident at an intersection that he decided to do something about it.

Garrett designed an automatic system for controlling traffic flow at intersections, patented it, and became known as the traffic light inventor.

The biography of Garrett Morgan shows that he continued to work for the improvement of man and was politically active throughout his life. He died on July 27, 1963, but he will always be remembered for his contributions to society.

Martin Luther King, Malcolm X and others have dominated when it comes to imparting the achievements of blacks...but not enough is sung about Araminta Ross aka Harriet Tubman. Many often refer to her as 'the Moses of her people.' Get familiar with her inspiring story.

Born around 1820 in Bucktown, Maryland. Reared in slavery, she married a free black, John Tubman, in 1844. He opposed her plans to flee north, so she escaped alone via the Underground Railroad in 1849, and over the next decade she led nearly 300 Maryland slaves to safety, including several siblings and her elderly parents.

Harriet was a deeply devoutly religious woman and a believer in decisive action. She helped John Brown organize his 1859 raid on Harper's Ferry, Virginia, but was prevented by illness from accompanying him. During the Civil War she repeatedly went behind enemy lines to spy for the Union, and recruit slaves to fight in the army.

In her later years, living in Auburn, New York, she helped support relatives and other former slaves, and raised money for freedmen's schools and a home for elderly blacks.

While Harriet Tubman remains one of history's best-known African Americans, until recently there have been few biographies of her written for adults. Because her life is inspiring, there are appropriately many children's stories about Tubman, but these tend to stress her early life, her own escape from slavery, and her work with the Underground Railroad. Less well known and neglected by many historians are her Civil War service and her activities in the nearly 50 years she lived after the Civil War ended. In this article, you'll find details about Harriet Tubman's life in slavery and her work as a conductor on the Underground Railroad, but you'll also find information about Tubman's later and less-known work and life.

Life in Slavery

Harriet Tubman was born into slavery in Dorchester County on the Eastern shore of Maryland, on the plantation of Edward Brodas or Brodess.

Her birth name was Araminta, and she was called Minty until she changed her name to Harriet in her early teen years. Her parents, Benjamin Ross and Harriet Green, were enslaved Ashanti Africans who had eleven children, and saw any of the older children sold into the Deep South.

At five years old, Araminta was "rented" to neighbors to do housework. She was never very good at household chores, and was beaten regularly by her owners and those who "rented" her. She was, of course, not educated to read or write. She eventually was assigned work as a field hand, which she preferred to household work. Although she was a small woman, she was strong, and her time working in the fields probably contributed to her strength.

At age fifteen she sustained a head injury, when she deliberately blocked the path of the overseer pursuing an uncooperative fellow slave, and was hit by the heavy weight the overseer tried to fling at the other slave. Harriet, who probably sustained a severe concussion, was ill for a long time recovering from this injury, and never fully recovered. She had periodic "sleeping fits" which, in the early years after her injury, made her less attractive as a slave to others who wanted her services.

When the old master died, the son who inherited the slaves was able to hire Harriet out to a lumber merchant, where her work was appreciated and where she was allowed to keep some money she earned from extra work.

In 1844 or 1845, Harriet married John Tubman, a free black. The marriage was apparently not a good match, from the beginning. It was shortly after her marriage that Harriet hired a lawyer to investigate her own legal history, and discovered that her mother had been freed on a technicality on the death of a former owner. But the lawyer advised Harriet that a court would be unlikely to hear the case, so Tubman dropped it. But knowing that she should have been born free, not a slave, caused her to contemplate freedom and resent her situation.

In 1849, several events came together to motivate Harriet Tubman to act. She heard that two of her brothers were about to be sold to the Deep South. And her husband threatened to sell her South, too. She tried to persuade her brothers to escape with her, but ended up leaving alone, making her way to Philadelphia, and freedom.

Harriet Tubman died on March 10, 1913.

Valentine's Day started in the time of the Roman Empire. In ancient Rome, February 14th was a holiday to honor Juno. Juno was the Queen of the Roman Gods and Goddesses. The Romans also knew her as the Goddess of women and marriage. The following day, February 15th, began the Feast of Lupercalia.

The lives of young boys and girls were strictly separate. However, one of the customs of the young people was name drawing. On the eve of the festival of Lupercalia, the names of Roman girls were written on slips of paper and placed into jars. Each young man would draw a girl's name from the jar and would then be partners for the duration of the festival with the girl whom he chose. Sometimes the pairing of the children lasted an entire year, and often, they would fall in love and would later marry.

Under the rule of Emperor Claudius II, Rome was involved in many bloody and unpopular campaigns. Claudius the Cruel was having a difficult time getting soldiers to join his military leagues. He believed that the reason was that Roman men did not want to leave their loves or families. As a result, Claudius canceled all marriages and engagements in Rome.

The good Saint Valentine was a priest at Rome in the days of Claudius II. He and Saint Marius aided the Christian martyrs and secretly married couples, and for this kind deed Saint Valentine was apprehended and dragged before the Prefect of Rome, who condemned him to be beaten to death with clubs and to have his head cut off. He suffered martyrdom on the 14th day of February, about the year 270. At that time it was the custom in Rome, a very ancient custom, indeed, to celebrate in the month of February the Lupercalia feasts in honor of a heathen god. On these occasions, amidst a variety of pagan ceremonies, the names of young women were placed in a box, from which they were drawn by the men as chance directed.

The pastors of the early Christian Church in Rome endeavored to do away with the pagan element in these feasts by substituting the names of saints for those of maidens. And as the Lupercalia began about the middle of February, the pastors appear to have chosen Saint Valentine's Day for the celebration of this new feast. So it seems that the custom of young men choosing maidens for valentines, or saints as patrons for the coming year, arose in this way.

Believing that Valentine's Day exists to celebrate the memory of a saint who valued love and romance, many exchange love notes or Valentines. Others believe that Valentine was later confused with the Norman French word 'galantin' meaning "lover of women". Through the passage of time, the two have merged with the result of St. Valentine being remembered as the patron saint of lovers.

By: Kemesha Bolton

In highlighting the legend that has surpassed all expectation and given us all a sense of who we are; we celebrate his birth, music and his death on this day his Earthstrong.

HIS BIRTH

There was no event which took place during the early hours of the morning in rural St. Ann, Jamaica when newly wed, nineteen year old Cedella Malcolm-Marley gave birth to her first child.

The 'moon faced' Cedella suffered greatly from morning sickness. When she went into labour on Sunday evening, she was taken to the house of her father, Omeriah Malcolm. She remained in labour through all of Monday; then at 2:30 the following morning Robert Nesta was finally delivered: a fawn colored boy with nose of his father Captain Norval Sinclair Marley.

Just after sunrise the after birth was wrapped carefully in a page from the Gleaner that contained a story describing the arrest in Kingston the day before of a young rude boy who had stolen 35 pounds from a Chinaman. The Hooligans alias was Pearl Harbor.

The after birth was buried at the foot of a young mango sapling that would from that day forth be Nesta's 'frenly tree', it would grow as tall and as strong as he wished it to, it's health and height reflecting his care; it would bend with the passage of time in the same direction as its cultivator.

THE BEGINNING

Born to Cedella Malcolm and Norval Marley on Tuesday February 6, 1945 at 2:30 am weighing 6 1/2 pounds in the village of Nine Miles St. Ann was Robert Nesta Marley called by many Bob Marley.

Bob's mother was a Jamaican who grew up with her father Omeriah Malcolm in Nine Miles St. Ann. Ciddy, as she was commonly called met Bob's father Norval Marley of the British West India Regiment two years after he moved there. Marley was a pipe puffing superintendent for the crown lands, who came riding into Nine Miles on a fine government bought horse trying to induce poor country people; to sow crops or even resettle in the deepest sections on the 'John Williams' jungle, the largely inhabited 'bridal lands' beyond the point where the crudest roads quit. Those were his activities in the day, at nights he was busy romancing with 'Ciddy' who was seventeen-year-old at the time with Norval being two or three years her senior. Out of this secret relationship came Bob Marley.

A couple of months after Bob was born his father left, but Bob had a happy childhood regardless. He lived with his mother, grandfather and other extended family in the steep hills of Rhoden Hill.

Tragedy struck and Bob's Grandfather died in 1957 and so most of the family migrated to the United States of America and Bob and his mother moved to Trench Town Kingston.

Trench Town was a housing scheme, built after the 1951 hurricane had destroyed the area's squatter camps. These camps which had gradually grown up around West Kingston had been built around the former Kingston refuge dump, where the country folks and displaced city dwellers would scavenge for whatever they could find. The area had been a sugar plantation, owned by the Lindos, one of the twenty-one families that are said to rule Jamaica.

Like other city dwellers Cedella came from the quiet rural surroundings to Jamaica's capital in search of work and excitement. As a youth Bob knew from an early age exactly what he wanted in life, he was not caught up in the negative existence of the ghetto bad boy profile. Bob was not a side walk bully, although Pauline (who was living in the community at the time when Bob was a youth) says, "if a guy come for him an' trouble him, he can defend himself." Even then Bob operated on several levels; on one hand he was affable, openly eager to assist. "He was a very easy going person, he was never rude or anything, him never aggressive and him always irie to me even as a kid coming from school, then on the other hand he was a loner, it was always the 'man and his guitar,' he was very moody, if people were sitting together with him, he would suddenly just get up and go somewhere else, just to be by himself," Pauline explained.

Six years after moving to Kingston at age eighteen (18) Bob met Rita Anderson who he later made his wife after three years of courting on February 10 1966, four days after his 21st birthday. Out of Bob and Rita's marriage came David (Ziggy), Stephen, Cedella and Stephanie Marley; a union inclusive of Rita's first child Sharon. Bob, however, had other outside children - Jah Nesta, Julian, Karen and Kimani Marley who were accepted openly by Rita. At the time of Bob's death there were eight children that were publicly known, but since Bob's death there has been an estimate of about twenty-two children that Bob Marley has fathered.

HIS MUSIC

Bob's music started way back in the 1950's when he was allegedly kidnapped by his father Norval Marley when he was just five years old and taken to Kingston and it is at this time he learnt about music. When he returned to Nine Miles he wanted to do nothing but play or sing. He started playing music using two sticks and tapping on a vegetable bin, his first guitar was made out of a large herring pan with strings attached to a wooden fret work.

In 1962 two years after Bob and his mother moved to Kingston the group 'Teenagers' was formed and the name was later changed to the 'Wailers' the members included Peter Tosh, Bunny Wailer and Bob Marley. Their first album was "Judge not" which was well accepted. Then came "Catch a Fire" and "Burning" which were both critically acclaimed.

Bob Marley has contributed significantly to Jamaica and the world. His songs took on real life stories, the group did more than entertain and their music translated a remarkable style and brought to the forefront the pain and feelings of million of people throughout the world.

HIS DEATH

There were many things that led up to Bob's death which takes me to the incident that happened on the morning of September 21, 1980 when Bob and his friend Skelly was jogging in Central Park, New York and he collapsed. Bob said, "I felt my body freezing."

After the incident the decision was taken to admit Bob in the Manhattan's Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center and he underwent radium treatment that caused the locks around his head and templates to drop off.

After extensive treatment Bob's health deteriorated. We hold close the memory of one instance when Ciddy stood at his bedside, clutching his hand he turned and said to her "I'll be alright. I am going to prepare a place."

He died just before noon on May 11, 1981, only forty hours after he left Germany. At that moment in Kingston, Judy Mowatt was sitting on the veranda of her home on the outskirts of Liguanea section of Kingston when a great burst of thunder shook the heavens and a bolt of lightening hurtled through her open window glancing off the framed photograph of Bob on her mantle piece. Frightened, her children began to cry; after calming them down Judy turned on the radio and heard the JBC bulletin that Bob was gone.

Tens of thousands of mourners Jamaicans, Africans, Americans, Europeans and West Indians attended the funeral which was a state funeral. His last performance was on the 23rd September 1980 in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.

Bob now rest in peace at his birth place in Nine Miles, St. Ann.

He remains one of the greatest superstars of all time.

Long live the Crowned King Of Reggae Music. The Legend Robert Nesta Marley O.M. Jah Live.

Awards and honors

1976 - Band of the Year (Rolling Stone)
June 1978 - Awarded the Peace Medal of the Third World from the United
Nations
February 1981 - Awarded Jamaica's third highest honor, the Order of Merit
1999 - Album of the Century (Time Magazine) for Exodus)
February 2001 - A star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame
February 2001 - Awarded Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award

The word "reggae" was coined around 1960 in Jamaica to identify a "ragged" style of dance music, that still had its roots in New Orleans rhythm'n'blues.

However, reggae soon acquired the lament-like style of chanting and emphasized the syncopated beat. It also made explicit the relationship with the underworld of the "Rastafarians" (adepts of a millenary African faith, revived Marcus Garvey who advocated a mass emigration back to Africa), both in the lyrics and in the appropriation of the African nyah-bingi drumming style (a style that mimicks the heartbeat with its pattern of "thump-thump, pause, thump-thump").

Compared with rock music, reggae music basically inverted the role of bass and guitar: the former was the lead, the latter beat the typical hiccupping pattern. The paradox of reggae, of course, is that this music "unique to Jamaica" is actually not Jamaican at all, having its foundations in the USA and Africa.

An independent label, Island, distributed Jamaican records in the UK throughout the 1960s, but reggae became popular in the UK only when Prince Buster's "Al Capone" (1967) started a brief "dance craze". Jamaican music was very much a ghetto phenomenon, associated with gang-style violence, but Jimmy Cliff's "Wonderful World Beautiful People" (1969) wed reggae with the "peace and love" philosophy of the hippies, an association that would not die away. In the USA, Neil
Diamond's "Red Red Wine" (1967) was the first reggae hit by a pop musician. Shortly afterwards, Johnny Nash's "Hold Me Tight" (1968) propelled reggae onto the charts. "Do The Reggae" (1968) by Toots (Hibbert) And The Maytals was the record that gave the music its name. Fredrick Toots Hibbert's vocal style was actually closer to gospel, as proved by their other hits ("54-46," 1967; "Monkey Man," 1969; "Pressure Drop," 1970).

A little noticed event would have far-reaching consequences: in 1967, the Jamaican disc-jockey Rudolph "Ruddy" Redwood had begun recording instrumental versions of reggae hits. The success of his dance club was entirely due to that idea. Duke Reid, who was now the owner of the Trojan label, was the first one to capitalize on the idea: he began releasing singles with two sides: the original song and, on the back, the instrumental remix. This phenomenon elevated the status of dozens of recording engineers.

Reggae music was mainly popularized by Bob Marley, first as the co-leader of the Wailers, the band that promoted the image of the urban guerrilla with Rude Boy (1966) and that cut the first album of reggae music, Best Of The Wailers (1970); and later as the political and religious (rasta) guru of the movement, a stance that would transform him into a star, particularly after his conversion to pop-soul melody with ballads such as Stir It Up (1972), I Shot The Sheriff (1973) and No Woman No Cry (1974).

Among the reggae vocal groups, the Abyssinian' Satta Massa Gana (1971) is representative of the mood of the era.

In 1972 reggae became a staple of western radio stations thanks to the film The Harder They Come. Source: www.scaruffi.com

As we celebrate black history month you can't help but reflect on the great contributions blacks made in making life better for all.

YardFlex in celebration of Black History Month will be featuring some outstanding black luminaries throughout the month.

We start off with George Washington Carver one of the most famous black inventor in history.

His contributions to the world in the areas of agriculture have influenced the economy and provided us with great products ranging from peanut butter to colors for our clothing.

George Washington Carver was born on July 12, 1864 in Diamond Grove, Missouri. He was a sickly child who would remain that way for the majority of his childhood years. He and his mother lived on a farm owned by Moses and Susan Carver, when they were kidnapped during a raid one night. Days later, neighbors found George and returned him to the Carvers, but now he had contracted whooping cough. His mother was nowhere to be found, so the Carver family raised him as their own.

Because of his poor health, George Washington Carver was not able to help out by working in the fields, but he did have a great interest in plants, and even planted his own garden in the woods near their farm. He produced medicines for his family and was soon given the nicknamed, 'The Plant Doctor.'

George was unable to get into any schools until he was 12, due to his race. To get into first formal school, he had to move to Newton County, Missouri and leave his adoptive parents behind, because there were no black schools any closer. He worked on a farm to earn money for his education in a one-room schoolhouse. Shortly afterward, he moved with another family to Fort Scott, Kansas.

When it was time to move on and continue his education at the University level, George Washington Carver again ran into resistance because of the color of his skin. After being denied entrance into Highland University, he was accepted into Simpson College in Iowa in the year 1890. George was very talented in Art, and earned great respect for that, but his passion was in Science and Agriculture. He transferred to the Iowa Agricultural College, which is now known as Iowa State University, and graduated in 1894. Upon graduation, Carver was offered a position on the faculty and allowed great freedom in the school's greenhouses to pursue his agricultural work. He was the first African American to be offered a faculty position at that College.

In 1896, George Washington Carver received his Master's Degree in Agriculture having co-authored a series of papers on the cures for fungus diseases. In 1897, he discovered two new fungi that were later named after him.

Booker T. Washington convinced George to come down to the Tuskegee Institute in Alabama to serve as the Director of Agriculture in 1897.

Carver accepted, and there is where the majority of the work was done that led to him being regarded as the most famous black inventor of all time.

In the south at that time, Tobacco and Cotton were the primary crops grown. The problem is that those crops deplete the soil of all of its nutrients. Between that and the devastation to the land from the Civil War, the agricultural situation in the south was not good. Considering that the majority of the agricultural products for the United States came from the south, this affected all of America.

George Washington Carver came up with a solution to the problem. Crop rotation was the key. George convinced the farmers to plant legumes like peanuts and peas because they produced nitrates and replenished the soil. He told them to rotate planting cotton and tobacco with the peanuts so that they could continue to have plentiful cotton and tobacco harvests. The farmers followed his instructions and were thrilled with the results, except for one thing. The production of cotton and tobacco was great, but now the farmers were left with all of these useless peanuts that were rotting in their overflowing warehouses. George Washington Carver took the challenge and quickly found new uses for peanuts. As a matter of fact, he eventually found over 300 uses for the peanut, such as peanut butter, ink, facial cream, and shampoo.

During this process, he also discovered that sweet potatoes and pecans enriched the soil, too. He convinced the farmers to work these crops into their rotation as well, and then found multiple uses for these products. Some of the uses of these crops include synthetic rubber and material for paving highways. From the pecan he invented over 75 products, and from common clays he developed dyes and paints. Many of these were used to color textiles, which made the colorful clothing people would wear.

Henry Ford, the famous inventor of the automobile, invited George Washington Carver to the Ford plant in Michigan where he came up with a way to use a plant weed named goldenrod to create synthetic rubber.

The famous inventor Thomas Edison was so impressed with Carver's work that he offered him a salary of $100,000 a year to work for him at the Edison Laboratories in their state of the art facilities. He turned it down, however, so that he could continue his research at Tuskegee.

Another way that George Washington Carver showed that his work was never about money and personal gain, is that even though he did hold 3 patents, the majority of his discoveries and inventions he never patented. When asked about this he replied, "God gave them to me, how can I sell them to someone else?"

The United States Government also took notice of Carver's brilliance and appointed him Collaborator in the Division of Plant Mycology and Disease Survey of the Bureau of Plant Industry of the U.S. Department of Agriculture in 1935.

By 1938, peanuts were 200 million dollar industry and Alabama's chief product. In 1940 George donated over $60,000 of his own savings to the George Washington Carver Foundation. He later willed the remaining money he had to the foundation to carry on his work after he was gone.

Carver died on January 5, 1943 on the campus of the Tuskegee Institute. Governments from around the world honored him for his many inventions and his work that improved the life of all of mankind.

The United States Government designated the farmland he grew up on, as a national monument, and made January 5, 1946 George Washington Carver day.

Desmond Dekker thrilled the world with his ska-laced songs and without a doubt when he died on May 25, 2006 he left a rich legacy of songs that can never be forgotten.

Desmond was the first musician who carried the music from his home Jamaica to the rest of the world. He is considered one of the ancestors of ska. YardFlex take time out to salute the man who made his contribution to the genre.

Desmond Dacres was born in 1942 in Kingston, Jamaica. At the age of 19 he met the influential Leslie Kong and who would have supposed that by now a new legend was born? In 1963, the newly named Dekker released his first single, "Honor Your Father And Mother," which was also issued in the UK courtesy of Chris Blackwell's Island label. During the same period, Dekker teamed up with his backing group, the Aces. Together they enjoyed enormous success in Jamaica during the mid-late 60's with a formidable run of 20 number 1 hits to their credit.

The emergence of rocksready in the latter half of 1966 propelled his James Bond inspired "007 (Shanty Town)" into the UK charts the following year. Also the single presaged Dekker's emergence as an
internationally famous artist. 1969 proved the year of Dekker's greatest worldwide success. "Get up in the morning, slaving for bread, sir, so that every mouth can be fed", was a patois-sung opening line which entranced and confused pop listeners on both sides of the Atlantic. The intriguing "Israelites" was a club hit the previous year and by the spring of 1969 had become the first reggae song to top the UK charts ever!

After an astonishing Top10 hit in the USA Dekker went back to Britain where he settled down in 1969. During the same year he once again hit the UK Charts with "It Mek."

Through his success, buoyed by consistent touring, Dekker remained the most famous reggae artist in the international scene until the early 70's. So it probably doesn't surprise that the hits kept coming for Dekker - once again he topped the charts with the Jimmy Cliff song "You Can Get It If You Really Want." Since Leslie Kong died from a heart failure in 1971, Desmond Dekker decided to join the Cactus Label. "Sing A Little Song" plus the re-release of "Israelites" at the same time put Desmond back in the UK Top 10 in 1975.

The 80's were not a happy time for Desmond: in addition to some very heavily advertised financial problems, his managerial problems were coming to a head. But, however, Desmond kept doing what he knew best: singing.

During a 2-Tone revival in 1993, Desmond then recorded the album "King Of Kings" (Trojan Records) with four original members of the legendary Specials, which continued to sell well.

To sum it up, Desmond Dekker's unmistakable falsetto remains one of Reggae's most memorable and -although his songs got that popular by now that they're used for several TV spots - even the younger generation of the reggae fans appreciates the authentic sound of the artist which definitely belongs to the roots of this movement.

July 3, 1999 will be a day remembered by lovers of good reggae music...it's the day when one of the greatest Reggae crooners – Dennis Brown made his exit from the world.

At age 42, he was definitely a life cut short way too soon. Yet in that span he managed to leave the world a rich legacy of feel good songs that decades from now will still be hot.

In a career that spanned almost 4 decades, Dennis worked with many of reggae's top names, beginning with Coxsone Dodd at Studio One, going on to work with such artistes and producers as Winston (Niney) Holness, Joe Gibbs, Derrick Harriott, Herman Chin-Loy, Sidney Crooks, Prince Buster, Randy's, Phil Pratt and GG Ranglin. The list goes on with Clive Hunt and Willie Lindo, engineer Errol Thompson, Sly & Robbie, Gussie Clarke, Tad Dawkins, Trevor Bow, Bunny Lee and Delroy Wright.

Dennis Emanuel Brown was born on February 1, 1957 in Kingston, Jamaica. Regularly billed as "The Crown Prince Of Reggae', it was only Brown's self-effacing nature that denied him advancement to the office of king. Loved in reggae music like no other singer, Brown was regularly courted by the major record labels, and even enjoyed a couple of token chart hits in Britain. More to the point, he produced more reggae classics than just about anyone else. Beginning his career at the age of 9 as one of the Studio One label's many child stars, his first hit, "No Man Is An Island" (1969), found him singing in much the same style he was to use throughout his career, only with a far less croaky voice.

"If I Follow My Heart", another major hit at Studio One, was every bit as good. He spent the early 70s freelancing between studios, recording for Lloyd Daley, Impact, Joe Gibbs and Aquarius, before recording his third collection, "Super Reggae And Soul Hits," a mature, classic record, full of Derrick Harriott's soulful arrangements and Brown's rich tones. A move to Winston "Niney" Holness' label was no less profitable. The two albums he made there, "Just Dennis" and "Wolf & Leopards," were recorded three years apart but their seamless rootsy artistry made them clearly part of one body of work.

A long, fruitful liaison with Joe Gibbs and Errol Thompson resulted in a further series of classic albums, among them "Visions," "Joseph's Coat Of Many Colours," "Spellbound" and "Yesterday, Today & Tomorrow." While the rock critics were latching on to dub in the mid-70s, it was Brown who was drawing a mass audience almost unnoticed outside reggae's heartlands.

His combination of serious, "message" songs and soul-wailing love melodies was irresistible. His stage shows, too, were genuine events, and always packed a punch. "Money In My Pocket" (1979) was the first of three incursions into UK chart territory, with Brown eventually signing to A&M Records in the early 80s in an unsuccessful attempt to corner the crossover market following the death of Bob Marley.

Simultaneously, he became co-owner of the DEB label, successfully producing Junior Delgado and female lovers rock trio 15-16-17.

Brown gradually spent more time in London as a consequence, eventually settling there for much of the 80s. His Joe Gibbs connection was terminated in 1982, marking the de facto end of Gibbs' prominence as a producer.

Brown's series of reggae hits, including "To The Foundation" for Gussie Clarke, "Revolution" for Taxi Records or cuts on his own Yvonne's Special label (named after his wife), saw him become one of the few established singers to ride the early dancehall boom unscathed. However, when digital music exploded onto reggae in 1985, Brown faltered for the first time in his career, seemingly unsure of his next move. Eventually, he settled into the new style, recording The Exit for King Jammy's in the digital mode.

A move to Gussie Clarke's Music Works Studio in 1989 gave him more kudos with the youth market, particularly on the duet with Gregory Isaacs, "Big All Around". Once again, Dennis Brown was in demand in Jamaica, back at the roots of the music, and rolling once again, recording everywhere and anywhere for a few months. In 1995 he recorded with Beenie Man and Triston Palmer for the hit compilation "Three Against War."

Dennis Brown passed away at the University Hospital of the West Indies. The cause of death - pneumonia/respiratory failure.

Jamaican Prime Minister Patterson led the eulogies while Dennis Brown became the first entertainer to be buried in the National Heroes Park.

Among Brown's most prolific songs are 'If I Follow My Heart', 'Love Me Always', 'Westbound Train', 'Silhouette', 'Stop The Fighting' and 'Here I Come'.

Ross Kemp looks at the gang violence in Kingston, Jamaica and examines the political history involved...

.

In 1926, Negro History Week was established to honor the accomplishments of African Americans. Carter G. Woodson, a black historian known as the Father of Black History, as well as others proposed the observance. During the 1970s, the observance became known as Black History Week.

In 1976, Black History Month was established. Black History Month is observed each year in February. It coincides with the birthdays of the great black leader Frederick Douglass (February 14) and Abraham Lincoln (February 12).

The celebration is sponsored by the Association for the Study of Afro-American Life and History in Washington, DC, which Woodson founded in 1915.

.

National Geographic reported that in 1930, as the dawn cleared in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia on November 2, it met everyone getting ready for the special historical event to take place that morning - The Coronation of The Conquering Lion of the Tribe of Judah.

Together with his Empress, His Imperial Majesty, Haile Selassie I spent the night before in prayer and devotion at the most high alter. During the morning chanting of praises resonated and dancing priests with pulsating drum rhythms joined in. Ancient Jewish rites which were in use at the time of King David, were re-lived right there before the ark of the covenant, the report stated. The Coptic Church in all its impressive might and splendor evoked biblical rituals that seemed to roll the centuries back.

As the time came for this coronation, which is the most important event in the Rastafarian Calendar today, His Imperial Majesty entered the ceremonial hall attired in white silk. He was escorted by aides and clergy and was preceded by waving incense burners.

"The Emperor's name was Anglicized as Power of the Holy Trinity and he gave his sacred pledge to uphold the Orthodox religion of the Church, to support and administer the laws of the country for the betterment of the people, to maintain the integrity of Ethiopia, and to found schools for developing the Spiritual and Material welfare of her subjects," National Geographic reported.

Once His Imperial Majesty took his place on the throne, his holiness Abuna Kyrillos broke the solemn silence with the following decree:

"Ye princes and ministers, ye nobles and chiefs of the army, ye soldiers and people of Ethiopia, and ye doctors and chiefs of the clergy, ye professors and priests, look ye upon our Emperor Haile Selassie the First, descended from the dynasty of Menelik the First, who was born of Solomon and the Queen of Sheba, a dynasty perpetuated without interruption from the time of King Sehale to our times."

Following ancient customs as when Samuel anointed David, chanting and prayers to the God of Gods rose from priestly voices and wonderful gifts bestowed. The Abuna then anointed His Imperial Majesty's head with oil and further declared:

"That God make this Crown a Crown of Glory. That, by the Grace and the blessing which we have given, you may have an Unshaken Faith and a Pure Heart, in order that you may inherit the Crown Eternal. So be it."

Jamaica celebrates yet another Heroes Day and in honour Yardflex pay tribute to the many who have laid the foundation that we can now enjoy true freedom. To the many unsung heroes whose work will not make it in the history books, to those who are still working behind the scenes making a difference in their own way.

Yardflex now take a brief look at our seven national heroes...they may be gone, but their work will be ringing out in the ages to come.

Marcus Garvey
Marcus Mosiah Garvey stands out in history as one who was greatly committed to the concept of the Emancipation of minds. He sought the unification of all Blacks through the establishment of the United Negro Improvement Association and spoke out against economic exploitation and cultural denigration.

Jamaica's first national hero was born in Saint Ann's Bay on August17, 1887. In his youth Garvey migrated to Kingston where he worked as a printer and later published a small paper "The Watchman".
During his career Marcus Garvey traveled extensively throughout many countries observing the poor working and living conditions of black people.

In 1914 he started the Universal Negro Improvement Association (UNIA) in Jamaica. The UNIA, which grew into an international organisation, encouraged self government for black people worldwide; self-help economic projects; protest against racial discrimination and cultural activities.

In 1916, Garvey went to the USA where he preached his doctrine of freedom to the oppressed blacks throughout the country. He spent many years in the United States pursuing his goal of Black Unification. However, USA officials disapproved of his activities and he was imprisoned, then deported.

Back in Jamaica in 1927, he continued his political activity forming the People's Political Party in 1929. He was unsuccessful in national elections. The world of the thirties was not ready for Marcus Garvey’s progressive ideas. He left Jamaica again, this time for England where he died in 1940. His body was brought back to Jamaica in 1964 and buried in the National Heroes Park in Kingston.

Paul Bogle
Paul Bogle, A Baptist Deacon who hails from the Stony Gut community a few miles north of Morant Bay believed in the teachings of the Holy Bible using it to endorse the principles of charity and endurance.

Though he was generally regarded as a peaceful man who shunned violence, he was a leader and organizer; he spent time in educating and training his followers.

Poverty and injustice in the society and lack of public confidence in the central authority urged Paul Bogle to lead a protest march to the Morant Bay Court-house on October 11, 1865. In a violent confrontation with official forces that followed the march, nearly 500 people were killed and a greater number were flogged and punished before order was restored.

Paul Bogle who lived in St. Thomas was captured and hanged on October 24, 1865; but his forceful demonstration achieved it’s objectives. It paved the way for the establishment of just practices in the courts and it brought about a change in official attitude which made possible the social and economic betterment of the people.

Alexander Bustamante
Born Alexander Clarke in the parish of Westmoreland, he took the name Bustamante from an Iberian sea captain who befriended him in his early life. After acquiring some wealth on the American stock exchange, he returned to Jamaica in 1932 and in 1938 led the resistance to the colonial government.

When Bustamante began to make his presence felt in Jamaica, the country was still a crown colony. Under this system, the Governor had, at all times, the right to veto, which he very often exercised against the wishes of the majority.

Bustamante first impressed his name on the society by a series of letters to Jamaica's newspaper, The Gleaner and occasionally to British newspapers calling attention to the social and economic problems of the poor and underprivileged in Jamaica.
The years 1937 and 1938 brought the outbreak of widespread discontent and social unrest. In advocating the cause of the masses, Bustamante became the undisputed champion of the working class. He also confronted the power of the colonial Governor, declaring, "Long live the King! But Denham must go."

During the troublous days of 1938 the security forces were everywhere eyeball to eyeball with Bustamante and the workers. Labour unrest continued on and off.

On September 8, 1940, Bustamante was detained at Up Park Camp for alleged violation of the Defense of the Realm Act. He was released seventeen month he later. On his release, he formed the Bustamante Industrial Trade Union and the Jamaica Labour Party in 1943. He was the first Premier of Jamaica (1944-1954) and Prime Minister at independence in 1962.

On August 6, 1962 Jamaica was granted full independence. At the first session of Parliament, Bustamante received the Instruments of Independence from the Queen's representative, Princess Margaret.
In 1962 Sir Alexander Bustamante became Jamaica's first Prime Minister.

He retired from active politics in 1967. He died on August 6, 1977 at the age of 93.

Norman Washington Manley
Norman Washington Manley founded the People's National Party(PNP) which later was tied to the Trade Union Congress and the N.W. U. Together with Bustamante; their efforts resulted in the New Constitution of 1944 granting full Adult Suffrage. In 1955 Manley was elected Chief Minister. The 400 year British Rule, invoking slavery, deculturisation, uprising and bloodshed was not at an end. Norman Washington Manley was born at Roxborough, Manchester, on July 4, 1893. He was a brilliant scholar and athlete, soldier (First World War) and Lawyer.

He identified himself with the cause of the workers at the time of the labor troubles of 1938 and donated time and advocacy to the cause.

In September 1938, Manley founded the People's National Party and was elected its President annually until his retirement 31 years later.
Manley and the PNP supported the trade union movement, then led by Alexander Bustamante, while leading the demand for Universal Adult Suffrage. When Suffrage came, Manley had to wait ten years and two terms before his party was elected to office.

He was a strong advocate of the Federation of the West Indies, established in 1958, but when Sir Alexander Bustamante declared that opposition Jamaica Labor Party would take Jamaica out of the Federation, Norman Manley, already renowned for his integrity and commitment to democracy, called a referendum, unprecedented in Jamaica, to let the people decide.

Norman Manley died on September 2, 1969.

George William Gordon
George William Gordon was a free colored land owner and an associate of Bogle. Born to a slave mother and a planter father who was attorney to several sugar estates in Jamaica, he was self-educated and became a landowner in St. Thomas. Gordon entered politics to offset the government's attempts to crush the spirit of the freed people of Jamaica and again reduce them to slavery. He faced severe odds as the people whose interests he sought to
serve did not qualify to vote.

As a member of the House of Parliament, he used his position to highlight the sufferings of the people and to make a plea for changes.

He subdivided his own lands, selling farm lots to the people as cheaply as possible, and organized a marketing system through which they could sell their produce at fair prices.

Gordon urged the people to protest against and to resist the oppressive and unjust conditions under which they were forced to live.
Gordon was arrested and charged for complicity in what is now called the Morant Bay Rebellion in 1865. He was illegally tried by court martial and, inspite of a lack of evidence convicted and sentenced to death. He was executed on October 23, 1865.

The Morant Bay Rebellion and the resultant deaths of Bogle and Gordon precipitated the beginning of a new era in Jamaica’s development. The British government became compelled to make changes including outstanding reforms in education, health, local government, banking and infrastructure.

Sam Sharpe
Sam Sharpe was the main instigator of the 1831 Slave Rebellion which began on the Kensington Estate in Saint James which was largely instrumental in bringing about the abolition of slavery.

Sharpe, an educated town slave, was a preacher and spokesman. He followed the developments of the abolition movement by reading discarded local and foreign papers and was able to advise his followers.

Because of his intelligence and leadership qualities, Sam Sharpe became "daddy" or leader of the native Baptist in Montego Bay. Religious meetings were the only permissible forms of organized activities for the slaves. Sam Sharpe was able to communicate his concerns and encourage political thought concerning events in England which affected the slaves and Jamaica.

Sam evolved a plan of passive resistance in 1831, by which the slaves would refuse to work on Christmas Day of 1831 and afterwards, unless their grievances concerning better treatment and the consideration of freedom were accepted by the state owners and managers.

The Rebellion started on December 28 and lasted 8 days. Sam Sharpe was eventually captured and hung at the Parade in Montego Bay (now renamed Sam Sharpe Square).

On August 28, 1833 slavery was abolished and the System of Apprenticeship instituted, allowing for the total freedom of slaves in the next 4-6 years.

Nanny of the Maroons
Nanny of the Maroons stands out in history as the only female among Jamaica’s national heroes. She possessed that fierce fighting spirit generally associated with the courage of men.
In fact, Nanny is described as a fearless Asante warrior who used militarist techniques to fool and beguile the English.

Nanny was a leader of the Maroons at the beginning of the 18th. Century. She was known by both the Maroons and the British settlers as an outstanding military leader who became, in her lifetime and after, a symbol of unity and strength for her people during times of
crisis.

Both legends and documents refer to her as having exceptional leadership qualities. She was a small wiry woman with piercing eyes. Her influence over the Maroons was so strong that it seemed to be supernatural and was said to be connected to her powers of obeah. She was particularly skilled in organising the guerrilla warfare carried out by the Eastern Maroons to keep away the British troops who attempted to penetrate the mountains to overpower them.

Like the heroes of the pre Independence era, Nanny too met her untimely death at theinstigation of the English sometime around 1734. Yet, the spirit of Nanny of the Maroons remains today as a symbol of that indomitable desire that will never yield to captivity.

The Ethiopian New Year falls in September at the end of the big rains. The highlands turn to gold as the Meskel daisies burst out in all their splendor. Ethiopian children clad in brand new clothes dance through the villages giving bouquets of flowers and painted pictures to each household. September 11th is both New Year's Day and the Feast of St. John the Baptist.

The day is called Enkutatash meaning the "gift of jewels." When the famous Queen of Sheba returned from her expensive jaunt to visit King Solomon in Jerusalem, her chiefs welcomed her back by replenishing her treasury with enku or jewels. The spring festival has been celebrated since these early times and as the rains come to their abrupt end, dancing and singing can be heard at every village in the green countryside. After dark on New Year's Eve people light fires outside their houses.

In Ethiopia more than 34,000 Jamaicans reportedly gathered from all across the world to ring in the new millennium. Jamaicans at home turned out in huge numbers on what was New Years eve and the celebrations were intense – very moving and spiritual overall. About a thousand strong rammed Mandela Park where speeches, drumming and movement were the order of the day until 8:00PM.

Livity Restaurant kept the festive mood alive until a little past midnight with an intimate and spirit filled concert. "A naw tell no lie," Sister Isis, the show's host said, "But I really wanted to be in Ethiopia tonight." Everyone could relate to that strong sentiment and still boundless joy was thick in the Livity Restaurant air.

Artistes and cultural icons rolled in and gave their contributions – affording attendees a priceless gift. Among those who not only performed, but hung out, milling around and interacting with all the "Family" in the house, were: Sister Carol, Etana, Empress, Jackie "Mutamba" Cohen, Ikebulan and Tarrus Riley.

"I had to participate - because it is a "Glorious Day" – Etana told Yardflex.

On September 11, 2007 at midnight in Ethiopia, the New Year and New Millennium celebrations began amid lavish gatherings, religious zeal and positive messages from the country’s troubled government. Ethiopia and Ethiopians throughout the world marked this day with immense enthusiasm and will continue to celebrate for days to come.

In the 6th Century, the rest of the Christian world made revisions in its estimate of the date of Christ’s birth - but Ethiopia kept the old date, which means that 7 years after the rest of the world, the country is marking the start of the year 2000.

For Rastafarians worldwide, recognizing and aligning with the calendar of the Coptic Orthodox Church of Ethiopia (a unique slightly modified Julian calendar) has been a part of their lifestyle and today Rastas everywhere have begun to commemorate the beginning of the year 2000.

Prime Minister Meles Zenawi, reportedly expressed his hope for a new millennium that would usher in a new era of prosperity for this Horn of Africa nation. He said, “The last few centuries of the millennium have not been as glorious, every generation of Ethiopians during those centuries has paid in blood to maintain our independence.” As the only African nation that has never been colonized, Ethiopia has always been revered and honored – especially amongst Rastafarians.

In Jamaica, the Ethio-Africa Diaspora Union Millennium Council have organized a series of events in honor of the occasion. Taking place over two days the celebrations had a pre-cursor – in the form of a special event to mark the anniversary of the birth of Mortimo Planno that happened on September 6.

On September 11, in collaboration with the Ministry of Tourism, Entertainment and Culture, the Millennium celebration event took the Mandela Park in Half Way Tree from 12:00 noon until 8:00PM. In addition to dignitaries like Barry Chevannes, Dr. Nafitsu Kagne (Senegal’s first Ambassador to Jamaica) and other African Diplomats, Sam Clayton, from the group The Mystic Revelation of Rastafari, will make presentations.

The Mystic Revelation will entertain along with the Nyabinghi Ancient Order and Drummers, the BoboShante, School of Vision and other Mansions. Artistes like, Tony Rebel, Queen Ifrica, Sizzla, Tarrus Riley,Tommy Cowan and others will alwo grace the stage with musical millennium presentations.

At The Livity Restaurant in Kingston, the celebration continues on September 11.

On September 12, 2007, the revelry continues with a special Millennium Dinner to be held at the Hilton Hotel in Kingston – at the poolside – beginning at 6pm.

Across the island, the official Nyabinghi Ises will be taking place at Scotts Pass Nyabinghi Center in Clarendon form September 10th until September 17th. In Ochio Rios on September 12th the Nyabinghi order will also gather to celebrate.

Ethiopians will attend different events, and three main parties have been planned. Many free festivities took place and there will be a year long celebration there. Many Rastafarians, some of whom are members of the 12 Tribes of Israel have taken what seems like a pilgrimage to join in the celebrations.

Eastern Parkway in Brookly, New York was the scene of great revelry as another Caribbean Day Parade was held. The Labour Day weekend has historically been a day of heavy feting for national of the Caribbean regions and their friends. Most prominent at the annual West Indian Caribbean day parade were Haitians and Trinidadi